Saturday 28 November 2009

Free File Hosting & Video Downloads, Free File Sharing, Online Friends Network - Ziddu

http://www.ziddu.com/login.php?logmsg=Please%20Login%20or%20Register

Want You Bad – The Offspring

Link

All I Want for Christmas Is You – Mariah Carey

Link

All by Myself – Celine Dion

Link

Patience – Guns N’ Roses

Link

No Woman No Cry (Remix) Wycliff Jean With – Bob Marley

Link

Knocking on Heavens Door – Bob Marley

Link

Don’t Matter – Akon

Link

Take A Vow – Rihanna « Rihanna Mp3 Code , Lyrics, Embed Music « VideokeMan

http://videokeman.com/rihanna/take-a-vow-rihanna/

Take a Vow – Rihanna

Link

Real Girl – Mutya Buena

Link

Monday 9 November 2009

BARANG ANTIK DAN MISTIK




Buy and Sale all kind of antiques around the wold : chinese ancient pottery shipwreck , cheramics , japan samurai , ancient jade , stone ,etc.
DI CARI PEMBELI TOKEK PANJANG 30 - 37 cm , SAMURAI , MEJA GIOK .HUB : NUEL MOSSAD 082147698433 , LEO ASHARI 081237960280 , JOZE TLS 0812462536697 , OMPET +6281337787607 , OMICKY 081353812402 , SANTOSO 081339383959 , ALEX 081236888897 , SHEIK AZEEZ BIN BRUNEI DARUSALAM +6282145726372 , ASIU 03808005807 , YANTOM +6281246350555 , TRIDA 085239396901 , BENRA +6281339258864 , BETEM 0811382912 , ANDRE +6285253046986 / +6281246645952 , CAK NARTO +6282147609876 / +6285253231925 , ASBEL BOLA 081331051363 , HASANUDIN CIKEAS 082146511702 , JERY 08123601083 , BAYU 082146633666 , HANDO 085737538835 , NUEL 081339001754 / 085239181215 , YENI MANOE 085253728575 , SITRI 081246142938 , MEDI 085237468926 , NIRON 082146086144 , MARIANUS 081331484671 , BANG EDY 081338463444 / 081246224442 , PAMBO TENTENA 081246133289 , ABAH 085287645333 , ABAH HEN 082145095388 , UDIN 082147779723 , ABAH 082146512474 , RUSLAN 082146089243 , ALAN 082147055770 , BONI 085239180450 / 081353455353 , CHRISTO 081339462526 , FENDI 085333610079 , WELKIS SEME 085253497000 , YANUS 085230616091 , OMBON +6285253199179 , OMED 082122310852 , OMOKI 0380832346 , OMPACE 08124667940 , OMPOLCE 081339466806 , OMTOE 081339476820 , EDY DOY 081237562047 , CORNELIS 085253379218 , ABAH TEGAR 081371003800 , MUTHALIB 03808109530 / 081338608942 / 087866176482 , RIN 08523144000 , RAMLY 085739293931 / 085253318856 , RONAL 082145664724 , DANIEL LEMA 081236960974 , AGUS FERNANDEZ 085239060952 , CORNELIS MANOE 081339001754 , WANTO PIDJO 085239070323 , DAFO 085253459704 www.oesao.multiply.com , http://bordersecurityforces.blogspot.com/
http://alex-syuradikara95.blogspot.com/
http://aliyahendeflores.blogspot.com/
http://gigiendawengaee.blogspot.com/
http://blampidjostealthmarketing.blogspot.com/
http://culturebuzz-endeflores.blogspot.com/
http://geisha007.blogspot.com/
http://cypall-heartbreak.blogspot.com/
http://8saltwisdom.blogspot.com/
http://mossadsocialengineering.blogspot.com/
http://kupangpropertyrealestate.blogspot.com/
http://endesaremovie.blogspot.com/
http://endesarechocolate.blogspot.com/
http://slicgecko.blogspot.com/
http://dbsnetworking.blogspot.com/
http://santigioesao.blogspot.com/
http://haiku-ndsare.blogspot.com/
http://bemyfriendandsharepeace.blogspot.com/
http://jewishgoldinvestment.blogspot.com/
http://endefloresjapan.blogspot.com/
http://weavingntt.blogspot.com/
http://endesaremusic.blogspot.com/
http://lukneno.blogspot.com/
http://k-linkconcept.blogspot.com/
http://k-linkbusiness.blogspot.com/
http://ndsareartshop.blogspot.com/
http://rememberme-alex.blogspot.com/
http://senseimasutatsuoyama.blogspot.com/
http://mitendate.blogspot.com/
http://rememberme-alex.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-avoidscams.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-nanotech.blogspot.com/
http://yawenwayeni.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-forest.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-summit.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-biochemicalscience.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-sciencetechnology.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-herbalphytotherapy.blogspot.com/ , http://mossad.gov.il/
כד יְבָרֶכְךָ יְהוָה, וְיִשְׁמְרֶךָ. The LORD bless thee, and keep thee;
כה יָאֵר יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וִיחֻנֶּךָּ. The LORD make His face to shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee
כו יִשָּׂא יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וְיָשֵׂם לְךָ שָׁלוֹם. The LORD lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.
כז וְשָׂמוּ אֶת-שְׁמִי, עַל-בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל; וַאֲנִי, אֲבָרְכֵם.

PULSA ELEKTRIK - KOKOS RAYA 8 CELL


http://kokosraya8.page.tl/

OESAO - Home


http://mantasi.page.tl/

oesao: FLORES ROTE ALOR ART SHOP


http://santigioesao.blogspot.com/2009/02/flores-rote-alor-art-shop.html

Sunday 6 September 2009

SOEKARNO




DI CARI PEMBELI TOKEK PANJANG 30 - 37 cm , SAMURAI , MEJA GIOK .HUB : CAK NARTO +6282147609876 / +6285253231925 , ASBEL BOLA 081331051363 , HASANUDIN CIKEAS 082146511702 , SHEIK AZEEZ BIN BRUNEI DARUSALAM +6282145726372 , HAJI SANTOSO 082266262820 , JERY 08123601083 , BAYU 082146633666 , HANDO 085737538835 , NUEL 081339001754 / 085239181215 , YENI MANOE 085253728575 , SITRI 081246142938 , MEDI 085237468926 , NIRON 082146086144 , MARIANUS 081331484671 , BANG EDY 081338463444 / 081246224442 , PAMBO TENTENA 081246133289 , ABAH 085287645333 , ABAH HEN 082145095388 , UDIN 082147779723 , SOEMANTRI 085239396767 , DARSONO 085253740541 , ALEX 081236888897 , SURA 082139471117 , ABAH 082146512474 , RUSLAN 082146089243 , ALAN 082147055770 , BONI 085239180450 / 081353455353 , CHRISTO 081339462526 , FENDI 085333610079 , WELKIS SEME 085253497000 , YANUS 085230616091 , ABAH MUS 085253024321 / 081239510654 , LEO ASHARI 081237960280 / 081353816606 ( , ABAH USMAN 085253155805 , OMBON +6285253199179 , OMED 082122310852 , OMOKI 0380832346 , OMPACE 08124667940 , OMPOLCE 081339466806 , OMTOE 081339476820 , EDY DOY 081237562047 , CORNELIS 085253379218 , ABAH TEGAR 081371003800 , MUTHALIB 03808109530 / 081338608942 / 087866176482 , RIN 08523144000 , RAMLY 085739293931 / 085253318856 , RONAL 082145664724 , DANIEL LEMA 081236960974 , AGUS FERNANDEZ 085239060952 , CORNELIS MANOE 081339001754 , WANTO PIDJO 085239070323 , DAFO 085253459704 www.oesao.multiply.com , http://www.facebook.com/pho... , http://www.facebook.com/gro... , http://ndsareartshop.blogsp/... , http://www.facebook.com/gro... , http://yanuar.kutakutik.or/.... , http://www.forbes.com/lists... , http://mantasi.page.tl/ ,http://mossad.gov.il/ , http://www.youtube.com/watc... , http://k-link.bisniscemerla/...
כד יְבָרֶכְךָ יְהוָה, וְיִשְׁמְרֶךָ. The LORD bless thee, and keep thee;
כה יָאֵר יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וִיחֻנֶּךָּ. The LORD make His face to shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee
כו יִשָּׂא יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וְיָשֵׂם לְךָ שָׁלוֹם. The LORD lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.
כז וְשָׂמוּ אֶת-שְׁמִי, עַל-בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל; וַאֲנִי, אֲבָרְכֵם.

Friday 27 March 2009

THE EMPEROR




DI CARI PEMBELI TOKEK PANJANG 30 - 37 cm , SAMURAI , MEJA GIOK .HUB : CAK NARTO +6282147609876 / +6285253231925 , ASBEL BOLA 081331051363 , HASANUDIN CIKEAS 082146511702 , SHEIK AZEEZ BIN BRUNEI DARUSALAM +6282145726372 , HAJI SANTOSO 082266262820 , JERY 08123601083 , BAYU 082146633666 , HANDO 085737538835 , NUEL 081339001754 / 085239181215 , YENI MANOE 085253728575 , SITRI 081246142938 , MEDI 085237468926 , NIRON 082146086144 , MARIANUS 081331484671 , BANG EDY 081338463444 / 081246224442 , PAMBO TENTENA 081246133289 , ABAH 085287645333 , ABAH HEN 082145095388 , UDIN 082147779723 , SOEMANTRI 085239396767 , DARSONO 085253740541 , ALEX 081236888897 , SURA 082139471117 , ABAH 082146512474 , RUSLAN 082146089243 , ALAN 082147055770 , BONI 085239180450 / 081353455353 , CHRISTO 081339462526 , FENDI 085333610079 , WELKIS SEME 085253497000 , YANUS 085230616091 , ABAH MUS 085253024321 / 081239510654 , LEO ASHARI 081237960280 / 081353816606 ( , ABAH USMAN 085253155805 , OMBON +6285253199179 , OMED 082122310852 , OMOKI 0380832346 , OMPACE 08124667940 , OMPOLCE 081339466806 , OMTOE 081339476820 , EDY DOY 081237562047 , CORNELIS 085253379218 , ABAH TEGAR 081371003800 , MUTHALIB 03808109530 / 081338608942 / 087866176482 , RIN 08523144000 , RAMLY 085739293931 / 085253318856 , RONAL 082145664724 , DANIEL LEMA 081236960974 , AGUS FERNANDEZ 085239060952 , CORNELIS MANOE 081339001754 , WANTO PIDJO 085239070323 , DAFO 085253459704 www.oesao.multiply.com , http://www.facebook.com/pho... , http://www.facebook.com/gro... , http://ndsareartshop.blogsp/... , http://www.facebook.com/gro... , http://yanuar.kutakutik.or/.... , http://www.forbes.com/lists... , http://mantasi.page.tl/ ,http://mossad.gov.il/ , http://www.youtube.com/watc... , http://k-link.bisniscemerla/...
כד יְבָרֶכְךָ יְהוָה, וְיִשְׁמְרֶךָ. The LORD bless thee, and keep thee;
כה יָאֵר יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וִיחֻנֶּךָּ. The LORD make His face to shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee
כו יִשָּׂא יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וְיָשֵׂם לְךָ שָׁלוֹם. The LORD lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.
כז וְשָׂמוּ אֶת-שְׁמִי, עַל-בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל; וַאֲנִי, אֲבָרְכֵם.

Tuesday 24 March 2009

sofyan's Site


http://amazingbaby.multiply.com

EBOT ART SHOP




DI CARI PEMBELI TOKEK PANJANG 30 - 37 cm , SAMURAI , MEJA GIOK .HUB : NUEL MOSSAD 082147698433 , LEO ASHARI 081237960280 , JOZE TLS 0812462536697 , OMPET +6281337787607 , OMICKY 081353812402 , SANTOSO 081339383959 , ALEX 081236888897 , SHEIK AZEEZ BIN BRUNEI DARUSALAM +6282145726372 , ASIU 03808005807 , YANTOM +6281246350555 , TRIDA 085239396901 , BENRA +6281339258864 , BETEM 0811382912 , ANDRE +6285253046986 / +6281246645952 , CAK NARTO +6282147609876 / +6285253231925 , ASBEL BOLA 081331051363 , HASANUDIN CIKEAS 082146511702 , JERY 08123601083 , BAYU 082146633666 , HANDO 085737538835 , NUEL 081339001754 / 085239181215 , YENI MANOE 085253728575 , SITRI 081246142938 , MEDI 085237468926 , NIRON 082146086144 , MARIANUS 081331484671 , BANG EDY 081338463444 / 081246224442 , PAMBO TENTENA 081246133289 , ABAH 085287645333 , ABAH HEN 082145095388 , UDIN 082147779723 , ABAH 082146512474 , RUSLAN 082146089243 , ALAN 082147055770 , BONI 085239180450 / 081353455353 , CHRISTO 081339462526 , FENDI 085333610079 , WELKIS SEME 085253497000 , YANUS 085230616091 , OMBON +6285253199179 , OMED 082122310852 , OMOKI 0380832346 , OMPACE 08124667940 , OMPOLCE 081339466806 , OMTOE 081339476820 , EDY DOY 081237562047 , CORNELIS 085253379218 , ABAH TEGAR 081371003800 , MUTHALIB 03808109530 / 081338608942 / 087866176482 , RIN 08523144000 , RAMLY 085739293931 / 085253318856 , RONAL 082145664724 , DANIEL LEMA 081236960974 , AGUS FERNANDEZ 085239060952 , CORNELIS MANOE 081339001754 , WANTO PIDJO 085239070323 , DAFO 085253459704 www.oesao.multiply.com , http://bordersecurityforces.blogspot.com/
http://alex-syuradikara95.blogspot.com/
http://aliyahendeflores.blogspot.com/
http://gigiendawengaee.blogspot.com/
http://blampidjostealthmarketing.blogspot.com/
http://culturebuzz-endeflores.blogspot.com/
http://geisha007.blogspot.com/
http://cypall-heartbreak.blogspot.com/
http://8saltwisdom.blogspot.com/
http://mossadsocialengineering.blogspot.com/
http://kupangpropertyrealestate.blogspot.com/
http://endesaremovie.blogspot.com/
http://endesarechocolate.blogspot.com/
http://slicgecko.blogspot.com/
http://dbsnetworking.blogspot.com/
http://santigioesao.blogspot.com/
http://haiku-ndsare.blogspot.com/
http://bemyfriendandsharepeace.blogspot.com/
http://jewishgoldinvestment.blogspot.com/
http://endefloresjapan.blogspot.com/
http://weavingntt.blogspot.com/
http://endesaremusic.blogspot.com/
http://lukneno.blogspot.com/
http://k-linkconcept.blogspot.com/
http://k-linkbusiness.blogspot.com/
http://ndsareartshop.blogspot.com/
http://rememberme-alex.blogspot.com/
http://senseimasutatsuoyama.blogspot.com/
http://mitendate.blogspot.com/
http://rememberme-alex.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-avoidscams.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-nanotech.blogspot.com/
http://yawenwayeni.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-forest.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-summit.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-biochemicalscience.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-sciencetechnology.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-herbalphytotherapy.blogspot.com/ , http://mossad.gov.il/
כד יְבָרֶכְךָ יְהוָה, וְיִשְׁמְרֶךָ. The LORD bless thee, and keep thee;
כה יָאֵר יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וִיחֻנֶּךָּ. The LORD make His face to shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee
כו יִשָּׂא יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וְיָשֵׂם לְךָ שָׁלוֹם. The LORD lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.
כז וְשָׂמוּ אֶת-שְׁמִי, עַל-בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל; וַאֲנִי, אֲבָרְכֵם.

Forum Bisnis Internet Indonesia | The Popular Internet Business

http://5fcc.com/?ref=7773
ita peni

Sunday 15 March 2009

FLORES ROTE ALOR ART SHOP




DI CARI PEMBELI TOKEK PANJANG 30 - 37 cm , SAMURAI , MEJA GIOK .HUB : CAK NARTO +6282147609876 / +6285253231925 , ASBEL BOLA 081331051363 , HASANUDIN CIKEAS 082146511702 , SHEIK AZEEZ BIN BRUNEI DARUSALAM +6282145726372 , HAJI SANTOSO 082266262820 , JERY 08123601083 , BAYU 082146633666 , HANDO 085737538835 , NUEL 081339001754 / 085239181215 , YENI MANOE 085253728575 , SITRI 081246142938 , MEDI 085237468926 , NIRON 082146086144 , MARIANUS 081331484671 , BANG EDY 081338463444 / 081246224442 , PAMBO TENTENA 081246133289 , ABAH 085287645333 , ABAH HEN 082145095388 , UDIN 082147779723 , SOEMANTRI 085239396767 , DARSONO 085253740541 , ALEX 081236888897 , SURA 082139471117 , ABAH 082146512474 , RUSLAN 082146089243 , ALAN 082147055770 , BONI 085239180450 / 081353455353 , CHRISTO 081339462526 , FENDI 085333610079 , WELKIS SEME 085253497000 , YANUS 085230616091 , ABAH MUS 085253024321 / 081239510654 , LEO ASHARI 081237960280 / 081353816606 ( , ABAH USMAN 085253155805 , OMBON +6285253199179 , OMED 082122310852 , OMOKI 0380832346 , OMPACE 08124667940 , OMPOLCE 081339466806 , OMTOE 081339476820 , EDY DOY 081237562047 , CORNELIS 085253379218 , ABAH TEGAR 081371003800 , MUTHALIB 03808109530 / 081338608942 / 087866176482 , RIN 08523144000 , RAMLY 085739293931 / 085253318856 , RONAL 082145664724 , DANIEL LEMA 081236960974 , AGUS FERNANDEZ 085239060952 , CORNELIS MANOE 081339001754 , WANTO PIDJO 085239070323 , DAFO 085253459704 www.oesao.multiply.com , http://www.facebook.com/pho... , http://www.facebook.com/gro... , http://ndsareartshop.blogsp/... , http://www.facebook.com/gro... , http://yanuar.kutakutik.or/.... , http://www.forbes.com/lists... , http://mantasi.page.tl/ ,http://mossad.gov.il/ , http://www.youtube.com/watc... , http://k-link.bisniscemerla/...
כד יְבָרֶכְךָ יְהוָה, וְיִשְׁמְרֶךָ. The LORD bless thee, and keep thee;
כה יָאֵר יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וִיחֻנֶּךָּ. The LORD make His face to shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee
כו יִשָּׂא יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וְיָשֵׂם לְךָ שָׁלוֹם. The LORD lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.
כז וְשָׂמוּ אֶת-שְׁמִי, עַל-בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל; וַאֲנִי, אֲבָרְכֵם.

Friday 13 March 2009

Mantra.pps

UANG SUKARNO




DI CARI PEMBELI TOKEK PANJANG 30 - 37 cm , SAMURAI , MEJA GIOK .HUB : NUEL MOSSAD 082147698433 , LEO ASHARI 081237960280 , JOZE TLS 0812462536697 , OMPET +6281337787607 , OMICKY 081353812402 , SANTOSO 081339383959 , ALEX 081236888897 , SHEIK AZEEZ BIN BRUNEI DARUSALAM +6282145726372 , ASIU 03808005807 , YANTOM +6281246350555 , TRIDA 085239396901 , BENRA +6281339258864 , BETEM 0811382912 , ANDRE +6285253046986 / +6281246645952 , CAK NARTO +6282147609876 / +6285253231925 , ASBEL BOLA 081331051363 , HASANUDIN CIKEAS 082146511702 , JERY 08123601083 , BAYU 082146633666 , HANDO 085737538835 , NUEL 081339001754 / 085239181215 , YENI MANOE 085253728575 , SITRI 081246142938 , MEDI 085237468926 , NIRON 082146086144 , MARIANUS 081331484671 , BANG EDY 081338463444 / 081246224442 , PAMBO TENTENA 081246133289 , ABAH 085287645333 , ABAH HEN 082145095388 , UDIN 082147779723 , ABAH 082146512474 , RUSLAN 082146089243 , ALAN 082147055770 , BONI 085239180450 / 081353455353 , CHRISTO 081339462526 , FENDI 085333610079 , WELKIS SEME 085253497000 , YANUS 085230616091 , OMBON +6285253199179 , OMED 082122310852 , OMOKI 0380832346 , OMPACE 08124667940 , OMPOLCE 081339466806 , OMTOE 081339476820 , EDY DOY 081237562047 , CORNELIS 085253379218 , ABAH TEGAR 081371003800 , MUTHALIB 03808109530 / 081338608942 / 087866176482 , RIN 08523144000 , RAMLY 085739293931 / 085253318856 , RONAL 082145664724 , DANIEL LEMA 081236960974 , AGUS FERNANDEZ 085239060952 , CORNELIS MANOE 081339001754 , WANTO PIDJO 085239070323 , DAFO 085253459704 www.oesao.multiply.com , http://bordersecurityforces.blogspot.com/
http://alex-syuradikara95.blogspot.com/
http://aliyahendeflores.blogspot.com/
http://gigiendawengaee.blogspot.com/
http://blampidjostealthmarketing.blogspot.com/
http://culturebuzz-endeflores.blogspot.com/
http://geisha007.blogspot.com/
http://cypall-heartbreak.blogspot.com/
http://8saltwisdom.blogspot.com/
http://mossadsocialengineering.blogspot.com/
http://kupangpropertyrealestate.blogspot.com/
http://endesaremovie.blogspot.com/
http://endesarechocolate.blogspot.com/
http://slicgecko.blogspot.com/
http://dbsnetworking.blogspot.com/
http://santigioesao.blogspot.com/
http://haiku-ndsare.blogspot.com/
http://bemyfriendandsharepeace.blogspot.com/
http://jewishgoldinvestment.blogspot.com/
http://endefloresjapan.blogspot.com/
http://weavingntt.blogspot.com/
http://endesaremusic.blogspot.com/
http://lukneno.blogspot.com/
http://k-linkconcept.blogspot.com/
http://k-linkbusiness.blogspot.com/
http://ndsareartshop.blogspot.com/
http://rememberme-alex.blogspot.com/
http://senseimasutatsuoyama.blogspot.com/
http://mitendate.blogspot.com/
http://rememberme-alex.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-avoidscams.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-nanotech.blogspot.com/
http://yawenwayeni.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-forest.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-summit.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-biochemicalscience.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-sciencetechnology.blogspot.com/
http://endeflores-herbalphytotherapy.blogspot.com/ , http://mossad.gov.il/
כד יְבָרֶכְךָ יְהוָה, וְיִשְׁמְרֶךָ. The LORD bless thee, and keep thee;
כה יָאֵר יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וִיחֻנֶּךָּ. The LORD make His face to shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee
כו יִשָּׂא יְהוָה פָּנָיו אֵלֶיךָ, וְיָשֵׂם לְךָ שָׁלוֹם. The LORD lift up His countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.
כז וְשָׂמוּ אֶת-שְׁמִי, עַל-בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל; וַאֲנִי, אֲבָרְכֵם.

Monday 9 March 2009

Why bees?

There are several reasons why honey bees are perhaps one of the most studied insects (probably next to Drosophila in terms of amount of money spent and number of papers published).

* Honey bees play a critical role in agriculture. The most important role honey bees play is actually not honey production, but pollination. The value of crops that require pollination by honey bees, in the United States alone, is estimated to be around $24 billion each year and commercial bee pollination was valued around $10 billion annually. There is also a trend to consume more bee-pollinated crops (such as fruits and vegetables), making honey bees more and more important in agriculture. Honey bees also produce honey and beeswax, which are valued at $285 million in US annually. Besides that bees also produce pollen, propolis, royal jelly, and bee venom that are playing increasing roles in health food and alternative medicine. Bee stings are routinely used for treatment of arthritis, multiple sclerosis and other auto-immune diseases.

* Honey bees are studied extensively, also because they are fascinating organisms. Bees have captured mankind's attention since as early as Aristotle. Not only because they produce honey and honey is the earliest sweetener human beings have found, but because of their industriousness (working to their death), selflessness (producing honey for humans and dying to defend their home), and most importantly, their social organization. Honey bees, like other social insects, show "division of labor" whereby different workers specialize on different tasks. In some sense, the complexity of their society rivals that of our own. Who governs their day-to-day chores? How do workers know what to do in a city bustling with tens of thousands of individuals? Clearly these have been the questions of humankind since long time ago, as evidenced in the Bible:

"Ants are creatures of little strength, yet they store up their food in the summer...Locusts have no king, yet they advance together in ranks." [Proverbs 30: 25-27].

* Honey bees are increasingly being used as a model system to study other aspects of biology. Besides their intricate social organization, honey bees are easily maintained, are cost effective in terms of obtaining large numbers of insects, and their genetics can be precisely controlled. Honey bee workers take 21 days to develop from eggs to adults, this compares favorably with other insects commonly used in classrooms (such as cockroaches, grasshoppers). Since a queen can lay as many as 1,500 eggs a day, large numbers of bees can be obtained easily. Honey bees are probably the only insect that has "artificial insemination" technique successfully invented. This is used extensively both commercially and in research to speed up the selection process and to control the exact genetic makeup of a colony.

bisnis barang antik - Halaman Depan

http://www.kartubisnis.com/oesao/

Israel Innovation

Israel Innovation

News & Events: Israel Innovation Overview
Israel's large concentration of talented and innovative people makes it
an ideal place for investment . Characterized by groundbreaking
entrepreneurship, Israel yields pioneering technologies, profitable
business opportunities and high investment returns. Israel's large
concentration of talented and innovative people makes it an ideal place
for investment . Characterized by groundbreaking entrepreneurship,
Israel yields pioneering technologies, profitable business opportunities
and high investment returns.
This is why have so many major multi-nationals - Microsoft,
Berkshire-Hathaway, Motorola, Intel, HP, Siemens, GE, IBM, Philips,
Lucent, AOL, Cisco, Applied Materials, IBM, J&J and more - chosen to
invest in Israel. Listed below are highlights of the record, resources and
support that make Israel a smart investment today and tomorrow .

The Record

The World Economic Forum has designated Israel is one of the leading
countries in the world in technological innovation. In the 2008-2009 WEF
Global Competitive Index Report, Israel received an overall rank of the
23rd most competitive country. The 2008 IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook
ranked Israel as the 20th most competitive country in the world.
Further Israeli highlights from the reports include:
·ranked 1st for total expenditure on R&D *
·ranked 1st for business expenditure on R&D *
·ranked 1st for availability of qualified scientists and engineers *
·ranked 2nd for venture capital availability *
·ranked 2nd for information technology skills *
·ranked 3rd for Quality of Scientific Research Organizations **
·ranked 3rd for Registered Patents Per Capita **
.ranked 3rd for flexibility and availability of the workforce *
·ranked 4th for higher education achievements *
·ranked 6th for overall innovation **
* IMD Global Competitiveness Yearbook 2007-2008
** WEF Global Competitiveness Report 2008-2009

The Resources

With the world's highest percentage of
engineers and scientists, Israel's
greatest natural resource is its
skilled workforce. Highly motivated,
resourceful and independent, they enable
Israel to stay ahead of the competition.
Israel’s workforce is particularly
competitive because of the informal but
effective get-down-to-business culture,
exceptional ingenuity and entrepreneurial
spirit. The combination of culture, skill
and initiative creates a flexible, working
system that allows for great adaptability
while producing breakthrough technologies
and quick time-to-market solutions.
Israel offers one of the world's most
advanced infrastructure and the services
required to conduct business efficiently
and effectively. Israel boasts a
sophisticated communications system; reliable energy infrastructure;
well-developed transportation system with modern international gateways;
protection of trademarks, patents, and other intellectual property;
highly developed and transparent financial system and a legal system
based on common and corporate law .

1st in R&D investments
Israel invests 4.7% of its GDP in R&D,
which is the highest ratio in the world
(IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook
2007).

Preferred choice of leading global players
Microsoft, Berkshire- Hathaway, Motorola,
Intel, HP, Siemens, Samsung, GE, Philips,
Lucent, AOL, Cisco, Applied Materials,
Winbond, IBM and J&J, are just a few
examples of multinationals that run core
activities in Israel.


Profit-driving innovations
Disk-on-key technology, IP Telephony,
Zip compression, the ingestible pill size camera, modern drip-irrigation
technology, ICQ instant messenger and many more were all Israeli
breakthroughs.

Highly-educated available workforce
Being 1st in the world for availability of
qualified scientists and engineers, Israel
provides multinationals with a professional
and skilled labor market (2007-8 IMD Global
Competitiveness Yearbook).

Flourishing start-up and VC industries
Ranked 2nd in the world for Venture Capital
availability, Israel provides its entrepren
eurs with the necessary backing to turn the
ir innovative ideas into profitable
businesses(IMD Global Competitiveness
Yeabook 2007-8).


Deeply integrated into the world economy
Israel has the largest number of companies listed on the NASDAQ outside of
the United States and approximately 70 Israeli companies are traded on
various European exchanges.

Nobel laureates
4 Israelis have won Nobel Prizes within the last 5 years in the fields of
chemistry and economics.

Sophisticated and comprehensive infrastructure
Ranked 3rd in the world for technological readiness, Israel provides
multinationals an environment suitable for the most demanding business
requirements (2006-7 WEF Global Competitiveness Yearbook).


Business Sectors - Israel

Life Sciences
Fourth in the world in biotechnology patents per capita, Israel not only
has the talent to innovate, but the skills to transform technology into
successful enterprise. A generous government incentives program is a major
factor for pushing progress forward.

Water Technologies
Since its founding, Israel has been coping with water scarcity and has
been treating the subject as a national priority. The country has been
constantly developing novel and efficient water technologies, which can
benefit the world as it is increasingly dealing with water scarcity
concerns due to global warming. Israel's success in answering the
country's water needs stems from its ability to incorporate an extensive
variety of solutions under multiple constrains.

Communication
In the past decade, Israel has emerged as a leading supplier for the
global telecommunications industry. Producing cutting-edge, innovative
technologies, Israeli communications companies continue to attract
top-tier institutional investors, raising a tremendous $88 million from
venture capitalists in 2004.

Homeland Security
As a top national priority, Homeland Security in Israel is more than just
an exportable commodity. Israel’s self-reliance has created a diversified
and cutting edge security industry, adding innovation to existing
technologies as well as developing new ones. Israel today has earned its
worldwide reputation for providing leading security solutions and
continues to successfully partner with key world players to protect
airports, seaports, government offices, financial institutions and
recreational centers.

Semiconductor Industry
Israel has long been recognized as a leading force in the semiconductor
industry. The semiconductor sector drives growth in many markets including
microprocessors, data and voice communications, wireless, IP and
networking communications, consumer, automotive, defense and more,
representing prime opportunities for investment and cooperation.

Chemicals
Israel is one of the leading chemical-producing nations in the world, and
chemicals are a primary export. The industry formally began at the
beginning of last century, when efforts commenced to extract minerals from
the Dead Sea. When the State was founded, the new government established
several state-owned companies to mine the raw materials and process the
derivatives.

Agro-technology
Israel is internationally recognized as a leader in cutting edge
agricultural advancements. Israel’s high level of development is due to
the close cooperation between scientists, extension advisers, farmers, and
agriculture-related industries, who contribute to the manufacturing of
advanced technologies used locally and around the world .

Asian giant hornet

Asian giant hornet



Scientific classification :

Kingdom:Animalia

Phylum:Arthropoda

Class:Insecta

Order:Hymenoptera

Family:Vespidae

Genus:Vespa

Species:V. mandarinia

Binomial name Vespa mandarinia Smith, 1852
The Asian giant hornet, Vespa mandarinia, also known as the Japanese hornet and
known colloquially as the yak-killer hornet, is the world's largest hornet,
native to temperate and tropical Eastern Asia. Its body length is approximately
50.8 mm (2.0 in), with a wingspan of about 76 mm (3 in).[1] Queens may reach a
length of 55 mm (2.2 in).[2] Due to its size, it is known in Japan as the giant
sparrow bee (大雀蜂 ,oo-suzumebachi?).

Anatomy

The head of the hornet is orange and quite wide in comparison to other hornet
species. The compound eyes and ocelli are dark brown, and the antennae are dark
brown with orange scapes. The clypeus (the shield-like plate on the front of the
head) is orange and coarsely punctured; the posterior side of the clypeus has
narrow, rounded lobes. The mandible is large and orange with a black tooth
(inner biting surface).
The thorax and propodeum (the segment which forms the posterior part of the
thorax) of the Asian giant hornet has a distinctive golden tint and a large
scutellum (a shield-like scale on the thorax) that has a deeply-impressed medial
line; the postscutellum (the plate behind the scutellum) bulges and overhangs
the propodeum. The hornet's forelegs are orange with dark brown tarsi (the
distal—furthest down—part of the leg); the midlegs and hindlegs are dark brown.
Wings are a dark brownish-gray. The tegulae are brown.
The gaster (the portion of the abdomen behind the thorax–abdomen connection) is
dark brown with a white, powdery covering; with narrow yellow bands at the
posterior margins of the tergite, the sixth segment is entirely yellow. It is
similar in appearance to the established European hornet, Vespa crabro.

Geographic distribution

The Asian giant hornetIt can be found in Primorsky Krai, Korea, China, Taiwan
(where it is called; "tiger head bee"), Indochina, Nepal, India, and Sri
Lanka, but is most common in mountainous areas of Japan.

Sting

The sting of the Asian giant hornet is about 6 mm (¼ in) in length,[1] and
injects an especially potent venom that contains, like many bee and wasp venoms,
a cytolytic peptide (specifically, a mastoparan) that can damage tissue by
stimulating phospholipase action,[3] in addition to its own intrinsic
phospholipase.[4] Masato Ono, an entomologist at Tamagawa University near Tokyo,
described the sensation as feeling "like a hot nail being driven into my
leg."[1].
An allergic human stung by the giant hornet may die from an allergic reaction to
the venom, but the venom contains a neurotoxin called mandaratoxin[5] which can
be lethal even to people who are not allergic if the dose is sufficient. Between
20 and 40 people die each year in Japan after being stung by giant hornets.[6]
A few interesting notes on Vespa mandarinia's venom and stinger:
The venom contains at least eight distinct chemicals, some of which damage
tissue, some of which cause pain, and at least one which has an odor that
attracts more hornets to the victim.
The venom contains 5% acetylcholine, a greater concentration than is present
in bee or other wasp venoms. Acetylcholine stimulates the pain nerve fibers,
intensifying the pain of the sting.
Vespa mandarinia uses its large crushing mandibles, rather than its sting, to
kill prey.
The venom of the Asian giant hornet is more toxic than that of most other bees
or wasps, giving this species one of the greatest lethal capacities per
colony.
The enzyme in the venom is so strong that it can dissolve human tissue. On
some occasions, the sting may be compared to the effects of a spider bite.
Like all hornets, V. mandarinia has a barbless stinger, allowing it to sting
repeatedly.

Predation

The Asian giant hornet is a relentless hunter that preys on other large insects
such as bees, other hornet species, and mantises.
An Asian giant hornet feeding on a mantis.The hornets often attack honey bee
hives with the goal of obtaining the honey bee larvae. A single scout, sometimes
two or three, will cautiously approach the nest, giving off pheromones which
will lead the other hornets to the hive's location.
The hornets can devastate a colony of honey bees: a single hornet can kill as
many as 40 honey bees per minute thanks to their large mandibles which can
quickly strike and decapitate a bee. It takes only a few of these hornets a few
hours to exterminate the population of a 30,000-member hive, leaving a trail of
severed insect heads and limbs. The European honey bees Apis mellifera have
small stings which do little damage to hornets that are three times their size
and twenty times their weight. The honey bees make futile solo attacks without
mounting a collective defense, and are easily killed individually by the
hornets. Once a hive is emptied of all defending bees, the hornets feed on the
honey and carry the larvae back to feed to their own larvae. The hornets can fly
up to 60 miles (95 km) in a single day, at speeds up to 25 mph or 40 km/h.[7]
Adult hornets cannot digest solid protein, so the hornets do not eat their prey,
but chew them into a paste and feed them to their larvae. The larvae produce a
clear liquid, vespa amino acid mixture, which the adults consume; larvae of
social Vespidae produce these secretions, the exact amino acid composition
varying considerably among species.[8] The passing of nutrition to adult wasps
by larvae is widespread in these wasps, and not restricted to the genus Vespa.

Native honey bees

Japanese honey bees (Apis cerana japonica) defensively "balling" in which two
hornets (Vespa simillima xanthoptera) are engulfed and heated.Although a handful
of Asian giant hornets can easily defeat the defenses of many individual honey
bees, whose small stings cannot inflict much damage against such a large
predator, the Japanese honey bee (Apis cerana japonica) possesses a collective
defense against them.
When a hornet scout locates and approaches a Japanese honey bee hive it will
emit specific pheromonal hunting signals. When the honey bees detect these
pheromones, a hundred or so will gather near the entrance of the nest and set up
a trap, keeping it open apparently to draw the hornet further into the hive or
allow it to enter on its own. As the hornet enters the nest, a large mob of
about five hundred honey bees surrounds it, completely covering it and
preventing it from moving, and begin quickly vibrating their flight muscles.
This has the effect of raising the temperature of the honey bee mass to 47 °C
(117 °F). The honey bees can barely tolerate this temperature, but the hornet
cannot survive more than 46 °C (115 °F), so it dies. Often several bees perish
along with the intruder, but the death of the hornet scout prevents it from
summoning reinforcements which would wipe out the colony.[9]
Beekeepers in Japan attempted to introduce the European honeybee in order to
increase productivity, however, European honeybees have no defence against the
hornet and the colonies are rapidly destroyed by these formidable insects.[1

Predators

The giant asian hornet has no known predator. No insect, in the hornet's area,
has the capacity to be a threat to the hornet. The only danger that the hornet
faces comes from humans. Some villages in Japan, value these creatures as part
of a human diet. They are eaten either as hornet sashimi or deep fried. Despite
the risks associated with the capture of hornets, they are said to be delicious
and a good source of protein. Besides the humans that consume the hornets,
deforestation does not play a role in harming the hornets.
[edit] Hornet supplement manufacturers
Recently, several companies in Asia and Europe have begun to manufacture dietary
supplements and energy drinks which contain synthetic versions of secretions of
the larvae of Vespa mandarinia, which the adult hornets usually consume. The
manufacturers of these products make claims that consuming the larval hornet
secretions (marketed as "hornet juice") will enhance human endurance because of
the effect it has on adult hornets' performance. Because these products are
marketed as dietary supplement rather than pharmaceuticals, they do not have to
support their claims. Some studies[11], however, have suggested that the vespa
amino acid mixture itself may influence animal performance in minor ways.
One such company, VAAM, manufactures several such hornet-themed supplements.
According to the product's nutritional information, these all consist mostly of
common amino acids and flavorings.

Western honey bee

Western honey bee (Apis mellifera)


Honey bee approaching a Milk Thistle flowerhead

Scientific classification :

Kingdom:Animalia

Phylum:Arthropoda

Class:Insecta

Order:Hymenoptera

Suborder:Apocrita

Superfamily:Apoidea

Family:Apidae

Subfamily:Apinae

Tribe:Apini

Genus:Apis

Species:A. mellifera
Binomial name
Apis mellifera
Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies
North-west of Europe
A. m. iberica
A. m. intermissa
A. m. lihzeni
A. m. mellifera
A. m. sahariensis
South-west of Europe
A. m. carnica
A. m. cecropia
A. m. ligustica
A. m. macedonica
A.m. ruttneri
A. m. sicula
Middle East
A. m. adamii
A. m. anatoliaca
A. m. armeniaca
A. m. caucasica
A. m. cypria
A. m. meda
Africa
A. m. adansonii
A. m. capensis
A. m. intermissa
A. m. lamarckii
A. m. litorea
A. m. major
A. m. monticola
A. m. sahariensis
A. m. scutellata
A. m. unicolor
A. m. jemenitica

Subspecies originating in Europe
Apis mellifera ligustica , classified by Spinola, 1806 - the Italian bee. The most commonly kept race in North America, South America and southern
They are kept commercially all over the world. They are very gentle, not very
likely to swarm, and produce a large surplus of honey. They have few
undesirable characteristics. Colonies tend to maintain larger populations
through winter, so they require more winter stores (or feeding) than other
temperate zone subspecies. The Italian bee is light colored and mostly leather
colored, but some strains are golden.
Apis mellifera carnica, classified by Pollmann, 1879 - Carniola region of
Slovenia, the southern part of the Austrian Alps, and northern Balkans -
better known as the Carniolan honey bee - popular with beekeepers due to its
extreme gentleness. The Carniolan tends to be quite dark in color, and the
colonies are known to shrink to small populations over winter, and build very
quickly in spring. It is a mountain bee in its native range, and is a good bee
for colder climates.
Apis mellifera caucasica, classified by Pollmann, 1889 - Caucasus Mountains -
This sub-species is regarded as being very gentle and fairly industrious. Some
strains are excessive propolizers. It is a large honeybee of medium, sometimes
grayish color.
Apis mellifera remipes, classified by Gerstäcker, 1862 - Caucasus, Iran,
Caspian Sea.
Apis mellifera mellifera, classified by Linnaeus, 1758 - the dark bee of
northern Europe also called the German honey bee - domesticated in modern
times, and taken to North America in colonial times. These small, dark-colored
bees, are sometimes called the German black bee.
The hybrid populations of A. m. mellifera x A. m. ligustica , found in North
America and Western Europe, have the reputation of stinging people (and other
creatures) for no good reason. The near-extinct "pure" A. m. mellifera is not
considered randomly aggressive.
Apis mellifera iberiensis, classified by Engel, 1999 - the bee from the
Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal)
Apis mellifera cecropia, classified by Kiesenwetter, 1860 - Southern Greece
Apis mellifera cypria, classified by Pollmann, 1879 - The island of Cyprus -
This sub-species has the reputation of being very fierce compared to the
neighboring Italian sub-species, from which it is isolated by the
Mediterranean Sea
Apis mellifera ruttneri, classified by Sheppard, Arias, Grech & Meixner in
1997- is a sub-species originating in the Maltese islands.
Apis mellifera sicula, classified by Montagano, 1911 - from the Trapani
province and the island of Ustica of western Sicily (Italia)
Subspecies originating in Africa
Several researchers and beekeepers describe a general trait of the African
subspecies which is absconding, where the Africanized honeybee colonies abscond
the hive in times when food-stores are low, unlike the European colonies which
tend to die in the hive.
Apis mellifera scutellata, classified by Lepeletier, 1836 - (African honey
bee) Central and West Africa, now hybrids also in South America, Central
America and the southern USA. In an effort to address concerns by Brazilian
beekeepers and to increase honey production in Brazil, Warwick Kerr, a
Brazilian geneticist, was asked by Brazilian Federal and State authorities in
1956 to import several pure African queens from Tanzania to Piracicaba-São
Paulo State in the south of Brazil. In a mishap some queens escaped. The
African queens eventually mated with local drones and produced what are now
known as Africanized honey bees on the American continent. The intense
struggle for survival of honey bees in sub-Saharan Africa is given as the
reason that this sub-species is proactive in defending the hive, and also more
likely to abandon an existing hive and swarm to a more secure location. They
direct more of their energies to defensive behaviors and less of their
energies to honey storage. African honey bees are leather colored, difficult
to distinguish by eye from darker strains of Italian bees.

Apis mellifera capensis, classified by Eschscholtz, 1822 - the Cape bee from
South Africa
Apis mellifera monticola, classified by Smith, 1961 - High altitude mountains
at elevation between 1,500 and 3,100 metres of East Africa Mt. Elgon, Mt.
Kilimanjaro, Mt.Kenya, Mt.Meru
Apis mellifera sahariensis, classified by Baldensperger, 1932 - from the
Moroccan desert oases of Northwest Africa. This sub-species faces few
predators other than humans and is therefore very gentle. Moreover, because of
the low density of nectar-producing vegetation around the oases it colonizes,
it forages up to five miles, much farther than sub-species from less arid
regions. Other authorities say that while colonies of this species are not
much inclined to sting when their hives are opened for inspection, they are,
nevertheless, highly nervous.
Apis mellifera intermissa, classified by von Buttel-Reepen, 1906; Maa, 1953 -
Northern part of Africa in the general area of Morocco, Libya and Tunisia.
These bees are totally black. They are extremely fierce but do not attack
without provocation. They are industrious and hardy, but have many negative
qualities that argue against their being favored in the honey or pollination
industry.
Apis mellifera major, classified by Ruttner, 1978 - from the Rif mountains of
Northwest Morocco - This bee may be a brown variety of the Apis mellifera
intermissa but there are also anatomic differences.
Apis mellifera adansonii, classified by Latreille, 1804 - originates Nigeria,
Burkina Faso
Apis mellifera unicolor, classified by Latreille, 1804 - Madagascar
Apis mellifera lamarckii, classified by Cockerell, 1906 - (Lamarck's honey
bee) of the Nile valley of Egypt and Sudan. This mitotype can also be
identified in honey bees from California. [1]
Apis mellifera litorea, classified by Smith, 1961 - Low elevations of east
Africa
Apis mellifera nubica, (Nubian honey bee) of Sudan
Apis mellifera jemenitica, classified by Ruttner, 1976 - Somalia, Uganda,
Sudan, Yemen
Subspecies originating in the Middle East and Asia
Apis mellifera macedonica, classified by Ruttner, 1988 - Republic of Macedonia
and Northern Greece
Apis mellifera meda, classified by Skorikov, 1829 - Iraq
Apis mellifera adamii, classified by Ruttner, 1977 - Crete
Apis mellifera armeniaca, Mid-East, Caucasus, Armenia
Apis mellifera anatolica, classified by Maa, 1953 - This race is typified by
colonies in the central region of Anatolia in Turkey and Iraq (Range extends
as far east as Armenia). It has many good characteristics but is rather
unpleasant to deal with in and around the hive.
Apis mellifera syriaca, classified by Skorikov, 1829 - (Syrian honeybee) Near
East and Israel
Apis mellifera pomonella, classified by Sheppard & Meixner, 2003 - Endemic
honey bees of the Tien Shan Mountains in Central Asia. This sub-species of
Apis mellifera has a range that is the farthest East.

Honey bee life cycle

Larvae to the left and eggs to the rightIn the temperate zone, honey bees
survive winter as a colony, and the queen begins egg laying in mid to late
winter, to prepare for spring. This is most likely triggered by longer day
length. She is the only fertile female, and deposits all the eggs from which the
other bees are produced. Except a brief mating period when she may make several
flights to mate with drones, or if she leaves in later life with a swarm to
establish a new colony, the queen rarely leaves the hive after the larvae have
become full grown bees. The queen deposits each egg in a cell prepared by the
worker bees. The egg hatches into a small larva which is fed by nurse bees
(worker bees who maintain the interior of the colony). After about a week, the
larva is sealed up in its cell by the nurse bees and begins the pupal stage.
After another week, it will emerge an adult bee.
For the first ten days of their lives, the female worker bees clean the hive and
feed the larvae. After this, they begin building comb cells. On days 16 through
20, a worker receives nectar and pollen from older workers and stores it. After
the 20th day, a worker leaves the hive and spends the remainder of its life as a
forager. The population of a healthy hive in mid-summer can average between
40,000 and 80,000 bees.

Pupae of dronesThe larvae and pupae in a frame of honeycomb are referred to as
frames of brood and are often sold (with adhering bees) by beekeepers to other
beekeepers to start new beehives.

Stages of development of the drone pupaeBoth workers and queens are fed "royal
jelly" during the first three days of the larval stage. Then workers are
switched to a diet of pollen and nectar or diluted honey, while those intended
for queens will continue to receive royal jelly. This causes the larva to
develop to the pupa stage more quickly, while being also larger and fully
developed sexually. Queen breeders consider good nutrition during the larval
stage to be of critical importance to the quality of the queens raised, good
genetics and sufficient number of matings also being factors. During the larval
and pupal stages, various parasites can attack the pupa/larva and destroy or
damage it.
Queens are not raised in the typical horizontal brood cells of the honeycomb.
The typical queen cell is specially constructed to be much larger, and has a
vertical orientation. However, should the workers sense that the old queen is
weakening, they will produce emergency cells known as supersedure cells. These
cells are made from a cell with an egg or very young larva. These cells protrude
from the comb. As the queen finishes her larval feeding, and pupates, she moves
into a head downward position, from which she will later chew her way out of the
cell. At pupation the workers cap or seal the cell. Just prior to emerging from
their cells, young queens can often be heard "piping." The purpose of this sound
is not yet fully understood.

Bee Swarm- bees are remarkably non aggressive in this state as they have no hive
to protect, and can be captured with easeWorker bees are infertile females; but
in some circumstances, generally only in times of severe stress or with the loss
or injury or declining health of the queen, they may lay infertile eggs, and in
some subspecies these eggs may actually be fertile. However, since the worker
bees are 'imperfect' (not fully sexually developed) females, they do not mate
with drones. Any fertile eggs that they lay would be haploid, having only the
genetic contribution of their mother, and in honey bees these haploid eggs will
always develop into drones. Worker bees also secrete the wax used to build the
hive, clean and maintain the hive, raise the young, guard the hive and forage
for nectar and pollen.
In honey bees, the worker bees have a modified ovipositor called a stinger with
which they can sting to defend the hive, but unlike other bees of any other
genus (and even unlike the queens of their own species), the stinger is barbed.
Contrary to popular belief, the bee will not always die soon after stinging:
this is a misconception based on the fact that a bee will usually die after
stinging a human or other mammal. The sting and associated venom sac are
modified so as to pull free of the body once lodged (autotomy), and the sting
apparatus has its own musculature and ganglion which allow it to keep delivering
venom once detached. It is presumed that this complex apparatus, including the
barbs on the sting, evolved specifically in response to predation by
vertebrates, as the barbs do not function (and the sting apparatus does not
detach) unless the sting is embedded in elastic material. Even then, the barbs
do not always "catch", so a bee may occasionally pull the sting free and either
fly off unharmed, or sting again.
Drone bees are the male bees of the colony. Since they do not have ovipositors,
they also do not have stingers. Drone honeybees do not forage for nectar or
pollen. In some species, drones are suspected of playing a contributing role in
the temperature regulation of the hive. The primary purpose of a drone bee is to
fertilize a new queen. Multiple drones will mate with any given queen in flight,
and each drone will die immediately after mating; the process of insemination
requires a lethally convulsive effort. Drone honey bees are haploid (having
single, unpaired chromosomes) in their genetic structure and are descended only
from their mother, the queen. They truly do not have a father. In essence,
drones are the equivalent of flying gametes. In regions of temperate climate,
the drones are generally expelled from the hive before winter and die of cold
and starvation, since they are unable to forage or produce honey or take care of
themselves.
The average lifespan of the queen in most subspecies is three to four years.
However, there are reports that in the German/European Black Bee subspecies that
was previously used for beekeeping, the queen was said to live 7 to 8 years or
more.[citation needed] Because queens successively run out of sperm, towards the
end of their life they start laying more and more unfertilized eggs. Beekeepers
therefore frequently change queens every or every other year.
The lifespan of the workers varies drastically over the year in places with an
extended winter. Workers born in the spring will work hard and live only a few
weeks, whereas those born in the autumn will stay inside for several months as
the colony hibernates.
Honey bee queens release pheromones to regulate hive activities, and worker bees
also produce pheromones for various communications (below).

Honey bee with tongue partly extendedBees produce honey by collecting nectar,
which is a clear liquid consisting of nearly 80% water with complex sugars. The
collecting bees store the nectar in a second stomach and return to the hive
where worker bees remove the nectar. The worker bees digest the raw nectar for
about 30 minutes using enzymes to break up the complex sugars into simpler ones.
Raw honey is then spread out in empty honeycomb cells to dry, which reduces the
water content to less than 20%. When nectar is being processed, honeybees create
a draft through the hive by fanning with their wings. Once dried, the cells of
the honeycomb are sealed (capped) with wax to preserve the honey.
When a hive detects smoke, many bees become remarkably non aggressive. It is
speculated that this is a defense mechanism; wild colonies generally live in
hollow trees, and when bees detect smoke it is presumed that they prepare to
evacuate from a forest fire, carrying as much food reserve as they can. In order
to do this, they will go to the nearest honey storage cells and gorge on honey.
In this state they are quite docile since defense from predation is relatively
unimportant; saving as much as possible is the most important activity.
[edit] Thermal regulation of the Honey bee
The honey bee needs an internal body temperature of 35 °C to fly, which is also
the temperature within the cluster. The brood nest needs the same temperature
over a long period to develop the brood, and it is the optimal temperature for
the creation of wax.
The temperature on the periphery of the cluster varies with the outside air
temperature. In the winter cluster, the inside temperature is as low as 20 - 22
°C.
Honey bees are able to forage over a 30 °C range of air temperature largely
because they have behavioural and physiological mechanisms for regulating the
temperature of their flight muscles. From very low to very high air
temperatures, the successive mechanisms are shivering before flight and stopping
flight for additional shivering, passive body temperature in a comfort range
that is a function of work effort, and finally active heat dissipation by
evaporative cooling from regurgitated honey sac contents. The body temperatures
maintained differ depending on expected foraging rewards and on caste. [1] The
optimal air temperature for foraging is 22 - 25 °C. During flight, the rather
large flight muscles create heat, which must dissipate. The honeybee uses a form
of evaporative cooling to release heat through its mouth. Under hot conditions,
heat from the thorax is dissipated through the head. The bee regurgitates a
droplet of hot internal fluid--a "honeycrop droplet"--which immediately cools
the head temperature by 10 °C. [2]
Below 7-10 °C, bees become immobile due to the cold and above 38 °C bee activity
slows due to heat. Honey bees can tolerate temperatures up to 50 °C for short
periods.

Queen bee

Peanut-like queen brood cells are extended outward from the brood
combPeriodically, the colony determines that a new queen is needed. There are
three general triggers.
The colony becomes space-constrained because the hive is filled with honey,
leaving little room for new eggs. This will trigger a swarm where the old
queen will take about half the worker bees to found a new colony, leaving the
new queen with the other half of worker bees to continue the old colony.
The old queen begins to fail. This is thought to be recognized by a decrease
in queen pheromones throughout the hive. This situation is called supersedure.
At the end of the supersedure, the old queen is generally killed.
The old queen dies suddenly. This is an emergency supersedure. The worker bees
will find several eggs or larvae in the right age-range and attempt to develop
them into queens. Emergency supersedure can generally be recognized because
the queen cell is built out from a regular cell of the comb rather than
hanging from the bottom of a frame.
Regardless of the trigger, the workers develop the larvae into queens by
continuing to feed them royal jelly. This triggers an extended development as a
pupa.
When the virgin queen emerges, she is commonly thought to seek out other queen
cells and sting the infant queens within and that should two queens emerge
simultaneously, they will fight to the death. Recent studies, however, have
indicated that colonies of Apis mellifera may maintain two queens in as many as
10% of hives. The mechanism by which this occurs is not yet known, but it has
been reported to occur more frequently in some South African subspecies of Apis
mellifera.[citation needed] Regardless, the queen asserts her control over the
worker bees through the release of a complex suite of pheromones called queen
scent.
After several days of orientation within and around the hive, the young queen
flies to a drone congregation point - a site near a clearing and generally about
30 feet (9.1 m) above the ground where the drones from different hives tend to
congregate in a swirling aerial mass. Drones detect the presence of a queen in
their congregation area by her smell, and then find her by sight and mate with
her in midair (drones can be induced to mate with "dummy" queens if they have
the queen pheromone applied). A queen will mate multiple times and may leave to
mate several days in a row, weather permitting, until her spermatheca is full.
The queen lays all the eggs in a healthy colony. The number and pace of
egg-laying is controlled by weather and availability of resources and by the
characteristics of the specific race of honeybee. Honey bee queens generally
begin to slow egg-laying in the early-fall and may even stop during the winter.
Egg-laying will generally resume in late winter as soon as the days begin to get
longer. Egg-laying generally peaks in the spring. At the height of the season,
she may lay over 2500 eggs per day - more than her own body mass.
The queen fertilizes each egg as it is being laid using stored sperm from the
spermatheca. The queen will occasionally not fertilize an egg. These eggs,
having only half as many genes as the queen or the workers, develop into drones.
[edit] Genome
The European honey bee is the third insect, after the fruit fly and the
mosquito, to have its genome mapped. According to the scientists who analysed
its genetic code, the honey bee originated in Africa and spread to Europe in two
ancient migrations.[3] They have also discovered that the number of genes in the
honey bees related to smell outnumber those for taste, and they have fewer genes
for immunity than the fruit fly and the mosquito. [4] The genome sequence
revealed several groups of genes, particularly the genes related to circadian
rhythms, were closer to vertebrates than other insects. Genes related to enzymes
that control other genes were also vertabratelike.[5]
See also: Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium

Honey bee pheromones

Honey bees use special pheromones, or chemical communication, for almost all
behaviors of life. Such uses include (but are not limited to): mating, alarm,
defense, orientation, kin and colony recognition, food production, and
integration of colony activities. Pheromones are thus essential to honey bees
for their survival.

Bee learning and communication

A large honey bee swarm on a fallen tree trunkHoney bees are an excellent animal
to study with regards to behavior because they are abundant and familiar to most
people. An animal that is disregarded every day has very specific behaviors that
go unnoticed by the normal person. Karl von Frisch studied the behavior of honey
bees with regards to communication and was awarded the Nobel Prize for
physiology and medicine in 1973. Von Frisch noticed that honey bees communicate
with the language of dance. Honey bees are able to direct other bees to food
sources through the round dance and the waggle dance. The round dance tells the
other foragers that food is within 50 meters of the hive, but it does not
provide much information regarding direction. The waggle dance, which may be
vertical or horizontal, provides more detail about both the distance and the
direction of the located food source. It is also hypothesized that the bees rely
on their olfactory sense to help locate the food source once the foragers are
given directions from the dances.
Another signal for communication is the shaking signal, also known as the
jerking dance, vibration dance, or vibration signal. It is a modulatory
communication signal because it appears to manipulate the overall arousal or
activity of behaviors. The shaking signal is most common in worker
communication, but it is also evident in reproductive swarming. A worker bee
vibrates its body dorsoventrally while holding another honey bee with its front
legs. Jacobus Biesmeijer examined the incidence of shaking signals in a
forager’s life and the conditions that led to its performance to investigate why
the shaking signal is used in communication for food sources. Biesmeijer found
that the experienced foragers executed 92.1% of the observed shaking signals. He
also observed that 64% of the shaking signals were executed by experienced
foragers after they had discovered a food source. About 71% of the shaking
signal sessions occurred after the first five foraging success within one day.
Then other communication signals, such as the waggle dance, were performed more
often after the first five successes. Biesmeijer proved that most shakers are
foragers and that the shaking signal is most often executed by foraging bees
over pre-foraging bees. Beismeijer concluded that the shaking signal presents
the overall message of transfer work for various activities or activity levels.
Sometimes the signal serves to increase activity, when bees shake inactive bees.
At other times, the signal serves as an inhibitory mechanism such as the shaking
signal at the end of the day. However, the shaking signal is preferentially
directed towards inactive bees. All three types of communication between honey
bees are effective in their jobs with regards to foraging and task managing.

"The general story of the communication of the distance, the situation, and
the direction of a food source by the dances of the returning (honey bee)
worker bee on the vertical comb of the hive, has been known in general outline
from the work of Karl von Frisch in the middle 1950s."

Social choice lessons from honey bees

Honey bees have been shown to employ what in human terms would be called range
voting to make hive-relocation decisions, see Myerscough (2003), Lindauer (1971)
and this essay at the Center for Range Voting. The decision making result is
neither a consensus nor a compromise. The decision making process is geared to
make a good relocation decision in the least amount of time.

Beekeeping

Queen (The yellow dot on the thorax was added by a beekeeper to aid in finding
the queen. She was probably born in 1997 or 2002; see the Queen article for an
explanation of the dot color conventions.)The honey bee is a colonial insect
that is often maintained, fed, and transported by beekeepers. Honey bees do not
survive individually, but rather as part of the colony. Reproduction is also
accomplished at the colony level. Colonies are often referred to as
superorganisms.
Honey bees collect flower nectar and convert it to honey which is stored in
their hives. The nectar is transported in the stomach of the bees, and is
converted to honey through the addition of various digestive enzymes, and by
being stored in a 'honey cell' and then partially dehydrated. Nectar and honey
provide the energy for the bees' flight muscles and for heating the hive during
the winter period. Honey bees also collect pollen which supplies protein and fat
for bee brood to grow. Centuries of selective breeding by humans have created
honey bees that produce far more honey than the colony needs. Beekeepers, also
known as "apiarists," harvest the honey.
Beekeepers often provide a place for the colony to live and to store honey.
There are seven basic types of beehive: skeps, Langstroth hives, top-bar hives,
box hives, log gums, D.E. hives and miller hives. All U.S. states require
beekeepers to use movable frames to allow bee inspectors to check the brood for
disease. This allows beekeepers to keep the Langstroth, top-bar, and D.E. hives
freely, but other types of hives require special permitting, such as for museum
use. The type of beehive used significantly impacts colony health and wax and
honey production.
Modern hives also enable beekeepers to transport bees, moving from field to
field as the crop needs pollinating and allowing the beekeeper to charge for the
pollination services they provide.
In cold climates some beekeepers have kept colonies alive (with varying success)
by moving them indoors for winter. While this can protect the colonies from
extremes of temperature and make winter care and feeding more convenient for the
beekeeper, it can increase the risk of dysentery (see the Nosema section of
diseases of the honey bee) and can create an excessive buildup of carbon dioxide
from the respiration of the bees. Recently, inside wintering has been refined by
Canadian beekeepers, who build large barns just for wintering bees. Automated
ventilation systems assist in the control of carbon dioxide build-up.

Pollination

Beehives set up for pollinationThe honey bee's primary commercial value is as a
pollinator of crops. Orchards and fields have grown larger; at the same time
wild pollinators have dwindled. In several areas of the world the pollination
shortage is compensated by migratory beekeeping, with beekeepers supplying the
hives during the crop bloom and moving them after bloom is complete. In many
higher latitude locations it is difficult or impossible to winter over enough
bees, or at least to have them ready for early blooming plants, so much of the
migration is seasonal, with many hives wintering in warmer climates and moving
to follow the bloom to higher latitudes.
As an example, in California, the pollination of almonds occurs in February,
early in the growing season, before local hives have built up their populations.
Almond orchards require two hives per acre (2,000 m² per hive) for maximum yield
and so the pollination is highly dependent upon the importation of hives from
warmer climates. Almond pollination, which occurs in February and March, is the
largest managed pollination event in the world, requiring more than one third of
all the managed honey bees in the United States. Massive movement of honey bee
are also made for apples in New York, Michigan, and Washington. And despite the
inefficiency of honey bees in pollinating blueberries[6], huge numbers are also
moved to Maine for blueberries, because they are the only pollinators that can
be relatively easily moved and concentrated for this and other monoculture
crops.
Commercial beekeepers plan their movements and their wintering locations with
prime reference to the pollination services they plan to perform.

Honey

Honey is the complex substance made when the nectar and sweet deposits from
plants and trees are gathered, modified and stored in the honeycomb by honey
bees. Honey is a complex biological mixture that consists mostly of inverted
sugars, primarily glucose and fructose. It has antibacterial and antifungal
properties and will not rot or ferment when stored under normal conditions.
However, honey will crystallize with time. Crystallized honey is not damaged or
defective in any way, for human use, but bees will automatically remove
crystallized honey from their hive and discard it, since they can only use
liquid honey.
[edit] Beeswax
Main article: Beeswax
Worker bees of a certain age will secrete beeswax from a series of glands on
their abdomen. They use the wax to form the walls and caps of the comb. When
honey is harvested, the wax can be gathered to be used in various wax products
like candles and seals.

Pollen

Bees collect pollen in the pollen basket and carry it back to the hive. In the
hive, pollen is used as a protein source necessary during brood-rearing. In
certain environments, excess pollen can be collected from the hives. It is often
eaten as a health supplement.
Propolis (or bee glue) is created from resins, balsams and tree saps. Honey bees
use propolis to seal cracks in the hive. Propolis is also sold for its reported
health benefits.

Royal jelly

Royal Jelly is a nutritional food product provided to larval bees, particularly
those intended to become queens. It is also harvested and consumed by humans as
a dietary supplement, as it contains various vitamins and amino acids.
[edit] Hazards to honey bee survival
European honey bee populations have recently faced threats to their survival.
North American and European populations were severely depleted by varroa mite
infestations in the early 1990s, and US beekeepers were further affected by
Colony Collapse Disorder in 2006 and 2007.[7] Chemical treatments against Varroa
mites saved most commercial operations and improved cultural practices. New bee
breeds are starting to reduce the dependency on miticides (acaracides) by
beekeepers. Feral bee populations were greatly reduced during this period but
now are slowly recovering, mostly in areas of mild climate, owing to natural
selection for Varroa resistance and repopulation by resistant breeds. Further,
Insecticides, particularly when used in violation of label directions, have also
depleted bee populations[citation needed], while various bee pests and diseases
are becoming resistant to medications (e.g. American Foul Brood, Tracheal Mites
and Varroa Mites).
[edit] Environmental hazards
In North America, Africanized bees have spread across the southern United States
where they pose a small danger to humans, although they may make beekeeping
(particularly hobby beekeeping) difficult and potentially dangerous.
As an invasive species, feral honey bees have become a significant environmental
problem in places where they are not native. Imported bees may compete with and
displace native bees and birds, and may also promote the reproduction of
invasive plants that native pollinators do not visit. Also, unlike native bees,
they do not properly extract or transfer pollen from plants with poricidal
anthers (anthers that only release pollen through tiny apical pores), as this
requires buzz pollination, a behavior which honey bees rarely exhibit. For
example, Gross and Mackay (1998) found that honey bees reduce fruiting in
Melastoma affine (a plant with poricidal anthers) by robbing stigmas of
previously-deposited pollen.

Contrary to popular perception, bears and honey badgers are brood predators;
honey is only of secondary interest.
Human encroachment into or adjacent to natural areas where African bush
elephants occur has led to recent research into methods of safely driving
groups of elephants away from humans, including the discovery that playback of
the recorded sounds of angry Apis mellifera colonies are remarkably effective
at prompting elephants to flee an area.[8]
They have a well developed sense of time (circadian rhythm). Honey bees are
one of the very few invertebrates in which sleep-like behavior, similar in
many respects to mammalian sleep, is known to exist.
Honey, as well as propolis, has antibiotic properties. Honey is so sweet that
bacteria cannot grow on it, and dry enough that it does not support yeasts.
Anaerobic bacteria may be present and survive in spore form in honey, however,
as well as anywhere else in common environments. Honey (or any other
sweetener) which is diluted by the non-acidic digestive fluids of infants, can
support the transition of botulism bacteria from the spore form to the
actively growing form which produces a toxin. When infants are weaned to solid
foods, their digestive system becomes acidic enough to prevent such growth and
poisoning. No sweeteners should be given to infants prior to weaning.
Honey bees are one of the very few invertebrates that produce a sort of "milk"
for their young, royal jelly, which is the only food the larvae will eat early
in development.
Like other social insects, they have an advanced immune system.
They have specially modified hairs on their body that develop a static
electricity charge to attract pollen grains to their bodies.
Honey bee foragers die usually when their wings are worn out after
approximately 500 miles (800 km) of flight.
Honey bee wings beat at a constant rate of 230 beats per second or 13,800
beats/minute. The frequency of the wing beats was much higher than expected
for an insect of this size. Honey bees make up for carrying heavier loads or
for changes in air density by altering the amplitude of their wings and
catching more air. This makes the wing muscles work harder, but it does not
change the frequency of the wing beats. The science of bee flight remained an
unsolved mystery until December 2005. A study published in Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences details the work supervised by Michael Dickinson
from Caltech.
Bees are capable of perceiving the polarization of light. They use this
information to orient their communicative dances.
They navigate by using a combination of memory, visual landmarks, colors, the
position of the sun, smell, polarized light and magnetic anomalies.
Their aging is controlled by a hormone which regulates the production of a
protein called vitellogenin.
The honey bee was a prominent political symbol in the empire of Napoleon
Bonaparte, representing the Bonapartist bureaucratic and political system. The
main purpose of this symbolism was a reference to the Merovingian Dynasty
given that about a century earlier, a series of golden honeybees had been
discovered in the tomb of Childeric I (which had by then come into Napoleon's
possession).
Worker honey bees can reproduce by parthenogenesis, but will necessarily
produce only drones (though this is not true of all other subspecies). Worker
bees are sexually underdeveloped females, and their ovulation is ordinarily
inhibited by hormonal signals provided to all hive members by a functioning
queen. Should the queen bee die and a replacement not be available, inhibition
of egg laying behavior among the worker bees will end, but the eggs they lay
will be unfertilized and therefore can produce only drones. Absent a virgin
queen, the colony will die out as the worker population dies out due to old
age.
Bee stings have also been reputed to help alleviate the associated symptoms of
Multiple sclerosis, arthritis, and other autoimmune diseases. This is an area
of ongoing research.